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Date: Wed, 6 Jan 93 05:56:45
From: Space Digest maintainer <digests@isu.isunet.edu>
Reply-To: Space-request@isu.isunet.edu
Subject: Space Digest V16 #009
To: Space Digest Readers
Precedence: bulk
Space Digest Wed, 6 Jan 93 Volume 16 : Issue 009
Today's Topics:
Space FAQ 12/15 - Controversial Questions
Space FAQ 13/15 - Interest Groups & Publications
Space FAQ 14/15 - How to Become an Astronaut
Space FAQ 15/15 - Orbital and Planetary Launch Services
Welcome to the Space Digest!! Please send your messages to
"space@isu.isunet.edu", and (un)subscription requests of the form
"Subscribe Space <your name>" to one of these addresses: listserv@uga
(BITNET), rice::boyle (SPAN/NSInet), utadnx::utspan::rice::boyle
(THENET), or space-REQUEST@isu.isunet.edu (Internet).
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Date: 6 Jan 1993 01:52:08 GMT
From: Jon Leech <leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu>
Subject: Space FAQ 12/15 - Controversial Questions
Newsgroups: sci.space,news.answers
Archive-name: space/controversy
Last-modified: $Date: 93/01/05 20:24:42 $
CONTROVERSIAL QUESTIONS
These issues periodically come up with much argument and few facts being
offered. The summaries below attempt to represent the position on which
much of the net community has settled. Please DON'T bring them up again
unless there's something truly new to be discussed. The net can't set
public policy, that's what your representatives are for.
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE SATURN V PLANS
Despite a widespread belief to the contrary, the Saturn V blueprints
have not been lost. They are kept at Marshall Space Flight Center on
microfilm.
The problem in re-creating the Saturn V is not finding the drawings, it
is finding vendors who can supply mid-1960's vintage hardware (like
guidance system components), and the fact that the launch pads and VAB
have been converted to Space Shuttle use, so you have no place to launch
from.
By the time you redesign to accommodate available hardware and re-modify
the launch pads, you may as well have started from scratch with a clean
sheet design.
WHY DATA FROM SPACE MISSIONS ISN'T IMMEDIATELY AVAILABLE
Investigators associated with NASA missions are allowed exclusive access
for one year after the data is obtained in order to give them an
opportunity to analyze the data and publish results without being
"scooped" by people uninvolved in the mission. However, NASA frequently
releases examples (in non-digital form, e.g. photos) to the public early
in a mission.
RISKS OF NUCLEAR (RTG) POWER SOURCES FOR SPACE PROBES
There has been extensive discussion on this topic sparked by attempts to
block the Galileo and Ulysses launches on grounds of the plutonium
thermal sources being dangerous. Numerous studies claim that even in
worst-case scenarios (shuttle explosion during launch, or accidental
reentry at interplanetary velocities), the risks are extremely small.
Two interesting data points are (1) The May 1968 loss of two SNAP 19B2
RTGs, which landed intact in the Pacific Ocean after a Nimbus B weather
satellite failed to reach orbit. The fuel was recovered after 5 months
with no release of plutonium. (2) In April 1970, the Apollo 13 lunar
module reentered the atmosphere and its SNAP 27 RTG heat source, which
was jettisoned, fell intact into the 20,000 feet deep Tonga Trench in
the Pacific Ocean. The corrosion resistant materials of the RTG are
expected to prevent release of the fuel for a period of time equal to 10
half-lives of the Pu-238 fuel or about 870 years [DOE 1980].
To make your own informed judgement, some references you may wish to
pursue are:
A good review of the technical facts and issues is given by Daniel
Salisbury in "Radiation Risk and Planetary Exploration-- The RTG
Controversy," *Planetary Report*, May-June 1987, pages 3-7. Another good
article, which also reviews the events preceding Galileo's launch,
"Showdown at Pad 39-B," by Robert G. Nichols, appeared in the November
1989 issue of *Ad Astra*. (Both magazines are published by pro-space
organizations, the Planetary Society and the National Space Society
respectively.)
Gordon L Chipman, Jr., "Advanced Space Nuclear Systems" (AAS 82-261), in
*Developing the Space Frontier*, edited by Albert Naumann and Grover
Alexander, Univelt, 1983, p. 193-213.
"Hazards from Plutonium Toxicity", by Bernard L. Cohen, Health Physics,
Vol 32 (may) 1977, page 359-379.
NUS Corporation, Safety Status Report for the Ulysses Mission: Risk
Analysis (Book 1). Document number is NUS 5235; there is no GPO #;
published Jan 31, 1990.
NASA Office of Space Science and Applications, *Final Environmental
Impact Statement for the Ulysses Mission (Tier 2)*, (no serial number or
GPO number, but probably available from NTIS or NASA) June 1990.
[DOE 1980] U.S. Department of Energy, *Transuranic Elements in the
Environment*, Wayne C. Hanson, editor; DOE Document No. DOE/TIC-22800;
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., April 1980.)
IMPACT OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE ON THE OZONE LAYER
From time to time, claims are made that chemicals released from
the Space Shuttle's Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) are responsible
for a significant amount of damage to the ozone layer. Studies
indicate that they in reality have only a minute impact, both in
absolute terms and relative to other chemical sources. The
remainder of this item is a response from the author of the quoted
study, Charles Jackman.
The atmospheric modelling study of the space shuttle effects on the
stratosphere involved three independent theoretical groups, and was
organized by Dr. Michael Prather, NASA/Goddard Institute for Space
Studies. The three groups involved Michael Prather and Maria Garcia
(NASA/GISS), Charlie Jackman and Anne Douglass (NASA/Goddard Space
Flight Center), and Malcolm Ko and Dak Sze (Atmospheric and
Environmental Research, Inc.). The effort was to look at the effects
of the space shuttle and Titan rockets on the stratosphere.
The following are the estimated sources of stratospheric chlorine:
Industrial sources: 300,000,000 kilograms/year
Natural sources: 75,000,000 kilograms/year
Shuttle sources: 725,000 kilograms/year
The shuttle source assumes 9 space shuttles and 6 Titan rockets are
launched yearly. Thus the launches would add less than 0.25% to the
total stratospheric chlorine sources.
The effect on ozone is minimal: global yearly average total ozone would
be decreased by 0.0065%. This is much less than total ozone variability
associated with volcanic activity and solar flares.
The influence of human-made chlorine products on ozone is computed
by atmospheric model calculations to be a 1% decrease in globally
averaged ozone between 1980 and 1990. The influence of the space shuttle and
Titan rockets on the stratosphere is negligible. The launch
schedule of the Space Shuttle and Titan rockets would need to be
increased by over a factor of a hundred in order to have about
the same effect on ozone as our increases in industrial halocarbons
do at the present time.
Theoretical results of this study have been published in _The Space
Shuttle's Impact on the Stratosphere_, MJ Prather, MM Garcia, AR
Douglass, CH Jackman, M.K.W. Ko and N.D. Sze, Journal of Geophysical
Research, 95, 18583-18590, 1990.
Charles Jackman, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch,
Code 916, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center,
Greenbelt, MD 20771
Also see _Chemical Rockets and the Environment_, A McDonald, R Bennett,
J Hinshaw, and M Barnes, Aerospace America, May 1991.
HOW LONG CAN A HUMAN LIVE UNPROTECTED IN SPACE
If you *don't* try to hold your breath, exposure to space for half a
minute or so is unlikely to produce permanent injury. Holding your
breath is likely to damage your lungs, something scuba divers have to
watch out for when ascending, and you'll have eardrum trouble if your
Eustachian tubes are badly plugged up, but theory predicts -- and animal
experiments confirm -- that otherwise, exposure to vacuum causes no
immediate injury. You do not explode. Your blood does not boil. You do
not freeze. You do not instantly lose consciousness.
Various minor problems (sunburn, possibly "the bends", certainly some
[mild, reversible, painless] swelling of skin and underlying tissue)
start after ten seconds or so. At some point you lose consciousness from
lack of oxygen. Injuries accumulate. After perhaps one or two minutes,
you're dying. The limits are not really known.
References:
_The Effect on the Chimpanzee of Rapid Decompression to a Near Vacuum_,
Alfred G. Koestler ed., NASA CR-329 (Nov 1965).
_Experimental Animal Decompression to a Near Vacuum Environment_, R.W.
Bancroft, J.E. Dunn, eds, Report SAM-TR-65-48 (June 1965), USAF School
of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks AFB, Texas.
USING THE SHUTTLE BEYOND LOW EARTH ORBIT
You can't use the shuttle orbiter for missions beyond low Earth orbit
because it can't get there. It is big and heavy and does not carry
enough fuel, even if you fill part of the cargo bay with tanks.
Furthermore, it is not particularly sensible to do so, because much of
that weight is things like wings, which are totally useless except in
the immediate vicinity of the Earth. The shuttle orbiter is highly
specialized for travel between Earth's surface and low orbit. Taking it
higher is enormously costly and wasteful. A much better approach would
be to use shuttle subsystems to build a specialized high-orbit
spacecraft.
[Yet another concise answer by Henry Spencer.]
THE "FACE ON MARS"
There really is a big rock on Mars that looks remarkably like a humanoid
face. It appears in two different frames of Viking Orbiter imagery:
35A72 (much more facelike in appearance, and the one more often
published, with the Sun 10 degrees above western horizon) and 70A13
(with the Sun 27 degrees from the west).
Science writer Richard Hoagland has championed the idea that the Face is
artificial, intended to resemble a human, and erected by an
extraterrestrial civilization. Most other analysts concede that the
resemblance is most likely accidental. Other Viking images show a
smiley-faced crater and a lava flow resembling Kermit the Frog elsewhere
on Mars. There exists a Mars Anomalies Research Society (sorry, don't
know the address) to study the Face.
The Mars Observer mission will carry an extremely high-resolution
camera, and better images of the formation will hopefully settle this
question in a few years. In the meantime, speculation about the Face is
best carried on in the altnet group alt.alien.visitors, not sci.space or
sci.astro.
V. DiPeitro and G. Molenaar, *Unusual Martian Surface Features*, Mars
Research, P.O. Box 284, Glen Dale, Maryland, USA, 1982. $18 by mail.
R.R. Pozos, *The Face of Mars*, Chicago Review Press, 1986. [Account of
an interdisciplinary speculative conference Hoagland organized to
investigate the Face]
R.C. Hoagland, *The Monuments of Mars: A City on the Edge of Forever*,
North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California, USA, 1987. [Elaborate
discussion of evidence and speculation that formations near the Face
form a city]
M.J. Carlotto, "Digital Imagery Analysis of Unusual Martian Surface
Features," *Applied Optics*, 27, pp. 1926-1933, 1987. [Extracts
three-dimensional model for the Face from the 2-D images]
M.J. Carlotto & M.C. Stein, "A Method of Searching for Artificial
Objects on Planetary Surfaces," *Journal of the British Interplanetary
Society*, Vol. 43 no. 5 (May 1990), p.209-216. [Uses a fractal image
analysis model to guess whether the Face is artificial]
B. O'Leary, "Analysis of Images of the `Face' on Mars and Possible
Intelligent Origin," *JBIS*, Vol. 43 no. 5 (May 1990), p. 203-208.
[Lights Carlotto's model from the two angles and shows it's consistent;
shows that the Face doesn't look facelike if observed from the surface]
NEXT: FAQ #13/15 - Space activist/interest/research groups & space publications
------------------------------
Date: 6 Jan 1993 01:52:10 GMT
From: Jon Leech <leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu>
Subject: Space FAQ 13/15 - Interest Groups & Publications
Newsgroups: sci.space,news.answers
Archive-name: space/groups
Last-modified: $Date: 93/01/05 20:24:45 $
SPACE ACTIVIST/INTEREST/RESEARCH GROUPS AND SPACE PUBLICATIONS
GROUPS
AMSAT - develops small satellites (since the 1960s) for a variety of
uses by amateur radio enthusiasts. Has various publications,
supplies QuickTrak satellite tracking software for PC/Mac/Amiga etc.
Amateur Satellite Corporation (AMSAT)
P.O. Box 27
Washington, DC 20044
(301)-589-6062
ASERA - Australian Space Engineering and Research Association. An
Australian non-profit organisation to coordinate, promote, and
conduct space R&D projects in Australia, involving both Australian
and international (primarily university) collaborators. Activities
include the development of sounding rockets, small satellites
(especially microsatellites), high-altitude research balloons, and
appropriate payloads. Provides student projects at all levels, and
is open to any person or organisation interested in participating.
Publishes a monthly newsletter and a quarterly technical journal.
Membership $A100 (dual subscription)
Subscriptions $A25 (newsletter only) $A50 (journal only)
ASERA Ltd
PO Box 184
Ryde, NSW, Australia, 2112
email: lindley@syd.dit.csiro.au
BIS - British Interplanetary Society. Probably the oldest pro-space
group, BIS publishes two excellent journals: _Spaceflight_, covering
current space activities, and the _Journal of the BIS_, containing
technical papers on space activities from near-term space probes to
interstellar missions. BIS has published a design study for an
interstellar probe called _Daedalus_.
British Interplanetary Society
27/29 South Lambeth Road
London SW8 1SZ
ENGLAND
No dues information available at present.
ISU - International Space University. ISU is a non-profit international
graduate-level educational institution dedicated to promoting the
peaceful exploration and development of space through multi-cultural
and multi-disciplinary space education and research. For further
information on ISU's summer session program or Permanent Campus
activities please send messages to 'information@isu.isunet.edu' or
contact the ISU Executive Offices at:
International Space University
955 Massachusetts Avenue 7th Floor
Cambridge, MA 02139
(617)-354-1987 (phone)
(617)-354-7666 (fax)
L-5 Society (defunct). Founded by Keith and Carolyn Henson in 1975 to
advocate space colonization. Its major success was in preventing US
participation in the UN "Moon Treaty" in the late 1970s. Merged with
the National Space Institute in 1987, forming the National Space
Society.
NSS - the National Space Society. NSS is a pro-space group distinguished
by its network of local chapters. Supports a general agenda of space
development and man-in-space, including the NASA space station.
Publishes _Ad Astra_, a monthly glossy magazine, and runs Shuttle
launch tours, Dial-A-Shuttle and Space Hotline telephone services. A
major sponsor of the annual space development conference. Associated
with Spacecause and Spacepac, political lobbying organizations.
Membership $18 (youth/senior) $35 (regular).
National Space Society
Membership Department
922 Pennsylvania Avenue, S.E.
Washington, DC 20003-2140
(202)-543-1900
Planetary Society - founded by Carl Sagan. The largest space advocacy
group. Publishes _Planetary Report_, a monthly glossy, and has
supported SETI hardware development financially. Agenda is primarily
support of space science, recently amended to include an
international manned mission to Mars.
The Planetary Society
65 North Catalina Avenue
Pasadena, CA 91106
Membership $35/year.
SSI - the Space Studies Institute, founded by Dr. Gerard O'Neill.
Publishes _SSI Update_, a bimonthly newsletter describing
work-in-progress. Conducts a research program including
mass-drivers, lunar mining processes and simulants, composites from
lunar materials, solar power satellites. Runs the biennial Princeton
Conference on Space Manufacturing. Developing a Lunar Polar Probe
for 1992 launch to geochemically map the entire moon and search for
volatiles which may be frozen at the poles.
Membership $25/year. Senior Associates ($100/year and up) fund most
SSI research.
Space Studies Institute
258 Rosedale Road
PO Box 82
Princeton, NJ 08540
SEDS - Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. Founded in
1980 at MIT and Princeton. SEDS is a chapter-based pro-space
organization at high schools and universities around the world.
Entirely student run. Each chapter is independent and coordinates
its own local activities. Nationally, SEDS runs a scholarship
competition, design contests, and holds an annual international
conference and meeting in late summer.
Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
MIT Room W20-445
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02139
(617)-253-8897
email: odyssey@athena.mit.edu
Dues determined by local chapter.
SPACECAUSE - A political lobbying organization and part of the NSS
Family of Organizations. Publishes a bi-monthly newsletter,
Spacecause News. Annual dues is $25. Members also receive a discount
on _The Space Activist's Handbook_. Activities to support pro-space
legislation include meeting with political leaders and interacting
with legislative staff. Spacecause primarily operates in the
legislative process.
National Office West Coast Office
Spacecause Spacecause
922 Pennsylvania Ave. SE 3435 Ocean Park Blvd.
Washington, D.C. 20003 Suite 201-S
(202)-543-1900 Santa Monica, CA 90405
SPACEPAC - A political action committee and part of the NSS Family of
Organizations. Spacepac researches issues, policies, and candidates.
Each year, updates _The Space Activist's Handbook_. Current Handbook
price is $25. While Spacepac does not have a membership, it does
have regional contacts to coordinate local activity. Spacepac
primarily operates in the election process, contributing money and
volunteers to pro-space candidates.
Spacepac
922 Pennsylvania Ave. SE
Washington, DC 20003
(202)-543-1900
UNITED STATES SPACE FOUNDATION - a public, non-profit organization
supported by member donations and dedicated to promoting
international education, understanding and support of space. The
group hosts an annual conference for teachers and others interested
in education. Other projects include developing lesson plans that
use space to teach other basic skills such as reading. Publishes
"Spacewatch," a monthly B&W glossy magazine of USSF events and
general space news. Annual dues:
Charter $50 ($100 first year)
Individual $35
Teacher $29
College student $20
HS/Jr. High $10
Elementary $5
Founder & $1000+
Life Member
United States Space Foundation
PO Box 1838
Colorado Springs, CO 80901
(719)-550-1000
PUBLICATIONS
Air & Space / Smithsonian (bimonthly magazine)
Box 53261
Boulder, CO 80332-3261
$18/year US, $24/year international
ESA - The European Space Agency publishes a variety of periodicals,
generally available free of charge. A document describing them in
more detail is in the Ames SPACE archive in
pub/SPACE/FAQ/ESAPublications.
Final Frontier (mass-market bimonthly magazine) - history, book reviews,
general-interest articles (e.g. "The 7 Wonders of the Solar System",
"Everything you always wanted to know about military space
programs", etc.)
Final Frontier Publishing Co.
PO Box 534
Mt. Morris, IL 61054-7852
$14.95/year US, $19.95 Canada, $23.95 elsewhere
Space News (weekly magazine) - covers US civil and military space
programs. Said to have good political and business but spotty
technical coverage.
Space News
Springfield VA 22159-0500
(703)-642-7330
$75/year, may have discounts for NSS/SSI members
Space Flight News (monthly magazine) - covers current space activities
(all nations) in depth and has good historical series on topics like
early space capsules, cosmonauts, etc. Available by newsstand in the
US (with several months shipping delay), only by mail elsewhere.
Subscription Dept.
Space Flight News Ltd.
PO Box 100
Stamford, Lincs, PE9IXQ
ENGLAND
#16.20 pounds/year UK and international (surface)
airmail: #25/year (Europe) #26 (Middle East) #29 (North America) #31
(Australia, NZ, Japan)
Journal of the Astronautical Sciences and Space Times - publications of
the American Astronautical Society. No details.
AAS Business Office
6352 Rolling Mill Place, Suite #102
Springfield, VA 22152
(703)-866-0020
GPS World (semi-monthly) - reports on current and new uses of GPS, news
and analysis of the system and policies affecting it, and technical
and product issues shaping GPS applications.
GPS World
859 Willamette St.
P.O. Box 10460
Eugene, OR 97440-2460
(503)-343-1200
Free to qualified individuals; write for free sample copy.
Planetary Encounter - in-depth technical coverage of planetary missions,
with diagrams, lists of experiments, interviews with people directly
involved.
World Spaceflight News - in-depth technical coverage of near-Earth
spaceflight. Mostly covers the shuttle: payload manifests, activity
schedules, and post-mission assessment reports for every mission.
Box 98
Sewell, NJ 08080
$30/year US/Canada
$45/year elsewhere
UNDOCUMENTED GROUPS
Anyone who would care to write up descriptions of the following
groups (or others not mentioned) for inclusion in the answer is
encouraged to do so.
AAS - American Astronautical Society
AIAA - American Institute of Astronautics & Aeronautics
World Space Foundation
Other groups not mentioned above
NEXT: FAQ #14/15 - How to become an astronaut
------------------------------
Date: 6 Jan 1993 01:52:13 GMT
From: Jon Leech <leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu>
Subject: Space FAQ 14/15 - How to Become an Astronaut
Newsgroups: sci.space,news.answers
Archive-name: space/astronaut
Last-modified: $Date: 93/01/05 20:24:38 $
HOW TO BECOME AN ASTRONAUT
First the short form, authored by Henry Spencer, then an official NASA
announcement.
Q. How do I become an astronaut?
A. We will assume you mean a NASA astronaut, since it's probably
impossible for a non-Russian to get into the cosmonaut corps (paying
passengers are not professional cosmonauts), and the other nations have
so few astronauts (and fly even fewer) that you're better off hoping to
win a lottery. Becoming a shuttle pilot requires lots of fast-jet
experience, which means a military flying career; forget that unless you
want to do it anyway. So you want to become a shuttle "mission
specialist".
If you aren't a US citizen, become one; that is a must. After that,
the crucial thing to remember is that the demand for such jobs vastly
exceeds the supply. NASA's problem is not finding qualified people,
but thinning the lineup down to manageable length. It is not enough
to be qualified; you must avoid being *dis*qualified for any reason,
many of them in principle quite irrelevant to the job.
Get a Ph.D. Specialize in something that involves getting your hands
dirty with equipment, not just paper and pencil. Forget computer
programming entirely; it will be done from the ground for the fore-
seeable future. Degree(s) in one field plus work experience in
another seems to be a frequent winner.
Be in good physical condition, with good eyesight. (DO NOT get a
radial keratomy or similar hack to improve your vision; nobody knows
what sudden pressure changes would do to RKed eyes, and long-term
effects are poorly understood. For that matter, avoid any other
significant medical unknowns.) If you can pass a jet-pilot physical,
you should be okay; if you can't, your chances are poor.
Practise public speaking, and be conservative and conformist in
appearance and actions; you've got a tough selling job ahead, trying
to convince a cautious, conservative selection committee that you
are better than hundreds of other applicants. (And, also, that you
will be a credit to NASA after you are hired: public relations is
a significant part of the job, and NASA's image is very prim and
proper.) The image you want is squeaky-clean workaholic yuppie.
Remember also that you will need a security clearance at some point,
and Security considers everybody guilty until proven innocent.
Keep your nose clean.
Get a pilot's license and make flying your number one hobby;
experienced pilots are known to be favored even for non-pilot jobs.
Work for NASA; of 45 astronauts selected between 1984 and 1988,
43 were military or NASA employees, and the remaining two were
a NASA consultant and Mae Jemison (the first black female astronaut).
If you apply from outside NASA and miss, but they offer you a job
at NASA, ***TAKE IT***; sometimes in the past this has meant "you
do look interesting but we want to know you a bit better first".
Think space: they want highly motivated people, so lose no chance
to demonstrate motivation.
Keep trying. Many astronauts didn't make it the first time.
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Announcement for Mission Specialist and Pilot Astronaut Candidates
==================================================================
Astronaut Candidate Program
---------------------------
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a need for
Pilot Astronaut Candidates and Mission Specialist Astronaut Candidates
to support the Space Shuttle Program. NASA is now accepting on a
continuous basis and plans to select astronaut candidates as needed.
Persons from both the civilian sector and the military services will be
considered.
All positions are located at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in
Houston, Texas, and will involved a 1-year training and evaluation
program.
Space Shuttle Program Description
---------------------------------
The numerous successful flights of the Space Shuttle have demonstrated
that operation and experimental investigations in space are becoming
routine. The Space Shuttle Orbiter is launched into, and maneuvers in
the Earth orbit performing missions lastling up to 30 days. It then
returns to earth and is ready for another flight with payloads and
flight crew.
The Orbiter performs a variety of orbital missions including deployment
and retrieval of satellites, service of existing satellites, operation
of specialized laboratories (astronomy, earth sciences, materials
processing, manufacturing), and other operations. These missions will
eventually include the development and servicing of a permanent space
station. The Orbiter also provides a staging capability for using higher
orbits than can be achieved by the Orbiter itself. Users of the Space
Shuttle's capabilities are both domestic and foreign and include
government agencies and private industries.
The crew normally consists of five people - the commander, the pilot,
and three mission specialists. On occasion additional crew members are
assigned. The commander, pilot, and mission specialists are NASA
astronauts.
Pilot Astronaut
Pilot astronauts server as both Space Shuttle commanders and pilots.
During flight the commander has onboard responsibility for the vehicle,
crew, mission success and safety in flight. The pilot assists the
commander in controlling and operating the vehicle. In addition, the
pilot may assist in the deployment and retrieval of satellites utilizing
the remote manipulator system, in extra-vehicular activities, and other
payload operations.
Mission Specialist Astronaut
Mission specialist astronauts, working with the commander and pilot,
have overall responsibility for the coordination of Shuttle operations
in the areas of crew activity planning, consumables usage, and
experiment and payload operations. Mission specialists are required to
have a detailed knowledge of Shuttle systems, as well as detailed
knowledge of the operational characteristics, mission requirements and
objectives, and supporting systems and equipment for each of the
experiments to be conducted on their assigned missions. Mission
specialists will perform extra-vehicular activities, payload handling
using the remote manipulator system, and perform or assist in specific
experimental operations.
Astronaut Candidate Program
===========================
Basic Qualification Requirements
--------------------------------
Applicants MUST meet the following minimum requirements prior to
submitting an application.
Mission Specialist Astronaut Candidate:
1. Bachelor's degree from an accredited institution in engineering,
biological science, physical science or mathematics. Degree must be
followed by at least three years of related progressively responsible,
professional experience. An advanced degree is desirable and may be
substituted for part or all of the experience requirement (master's
degree = 1 year, doctoral degree = 3 years). Quality of academic
preparation is important.
2. Ability to pass a NASA class II space physical, which is similar to a
civilian or military class II flight physical and includes the following
specific standards:
Distant visual acuity:
20/100 or better uncorrected,
correctable to 20/20, each eye.
Blood pressure:
140/90 measured in sitting position.
3. Height between 60 and 76 inches.
Pilot Astronaut Candidate:
1. Bachelor's degree from an accredited institution in engineering,
biological science, physical science or mathematics. Degree must be
followed by at least three years of related progressively responsible,
professional experience. An advanced degree is desirable. Quality of
academic preparation is important.
2. At least 1000 hours pilot-in-command time in jet aircraft. Flight
test experience highly desirable.
3. Ability to pass a NASA Class I space physical which is similar to a
military or civilian Class I flight physical and includes the following
specific standards:
Distant visual acuity:
20/50 or better uncorrected
correctable to 20/20, each eye.
Blood pressure:
140/90 measured in sitting position.
4. Height between 64 and 76 inches.
Citizenship Requirements
Applications for the Astronaut Candidate Program must be citizens of
the United States.
Note on Academic Requirements
Applicants for the Astronaut Candidate Program must meet the basic
education requirements for NASA engineering and scientific positions --
specifically: successful completion of standard professional curriculum
in an accredited college or university leading to at least a bachelor's
degree with major study in an appropriate field of engineering,
biological science, physical science, or mathematics.
The following degree fields, while related to engineering and the
sciences, are not considered qualifying:
- Degrees in technology (Engineering Technology, Aviation Technology,
Medical Technology, etc.)
- Degrees in Psychology (except for Clinical Psychology, Physiological
Psychology, or Experimental Psychology which are qualifying).
- Degrees in Nursing.
- Degrees in social sciences (Geography, Anthropology, Archaeology, etc.)
- Degrees in Aviation, Aviation Management or similar fields.
Application Procedures
----------------------
Civilian
The application package may be obtained by writing to:
NASA Johnson Space Center
Astronaut Selection Office
ATTN: AHX
Houston, TX 77058
Civilian applications will be accepted on a continuous basis. When NASA
decides to select additional astronaut candidates, consideration will be
given only to those applications on hand on the date of decision is
made. Applications received after that date will be retained and
considered for the next selection. Applicants will be notified annually
of the opportunity to update their applications and to indicate
continued interest in being considered for the program. Those applicants
who do not update their applications annually will be dropped from
consideration, and their applications will not be retained. After the
preliminary screening of applications, additional information may be
requested for some applicants, and person listed on the application as
supervisors and references may be contacted.
Active Duty Military
Active duty military personnel must submit applications to their
respective military service and not directly to NASA. Application
procedures will be disseminated by each service.
Selection
---------
Personal interviews and thorough medical evaluations will be required
for both civilian and military applicants under final consideration.
Once final selections have been made, all applicants who were considered
will be notified of the outcome of the process.
Selection rosters established through this process may be used for the
selection of additional candidates during a one year period following
their establishment.
General Program Requirements
Selected applicants will be designated Astronaut Candidates and will be
assigned to the Astronaut Office at the Johnson Space Center, Houston,
Texas. The astronaut candidates will undergo a 1 year training and
evaluation period during which time they will be assigned technical or
scientific responsibilities allowing them to contribute substantially to
ongoing programs. They will also participate in the basic astronaut
training program which is designed to develop the knowledge and skills
required for formal mission training upon selection for a flight. Pilot
astronaut candidates will maintain proficiency in NASA aircraft during
their candidate period.
Applicants should be aware that selection as an astronaut candidate does
not insure selection as an astronaut. Final selection as an astronaut
will depend on satisfactory completion of the 1 year training and
evaluation period. Civilian candidates who successfully complete the
training and evaluation and are selected as astronauts will become
permanent Federal employees and will be expected to remain with NASA for
a period of at least five years. Civilian candidates who are not
selected as astronauts may be placed in other positions within NASA
depending upon Agency requirements and manpower constraints at that
time. Successful military candidates will be detailed to NASA for a
specified tour of duty.
NASA has an affirmative action program goal of having qualified
minorities and women among those qualified as astronaut candidates.
Therefore, qualified minorities and women are encouraged to apply.
Pay and Benefits
----------------
Civilians
Salaries for civilian astronaut candidates are based on the Federal
Governments General Schedule pay scales for grades GS-11 through GS-14,
and are set in accordance with each individuals academic achievements
and experience.
Other benefits include vacation and sick leave, a retirement plan, and
participation in group health and life insurance plans.
Military
Selected military personnel will be detailed to the Johnson Space Center
but will remain in an active duty status for pay, benefits, leave, and
other similar military matters.
NEXT: FAQ #15/15 - Orbital and Planetary Launch Services
------------------------------
Date: 6 Jan 1993 01:52:15 GMT
From: Jon Leech <leech@mahler.cs.unc.edu>
Subject: Space FAQ 15/15 - Orbital and Planetary Launch Services
Newsgroups: sci.space,news.answers
Archive-name: space/launchers
Last-modified: $Date: 93/01/05 20:24:48 $
ORBITAL AND PLANETARY LAUNCH SERVICES
The following data comes from _International Reference Guide to Space Launch
Systems_ by Steven J. Isakowitz, 1991 edition.
Notes:
* Unless otherwise specified, LEO and polar paylaods are for a 100 nm
orbit.
* Reliablity data includes launches through Dec, 1990. Reliabity for a
familiy of vehicles includes launches by types no longer built when
applicable
* Prices are in millions of 1990 $US and are subject to change.
* Only operational vehicle families are included. Individual vehicles
which have not yet flown are marked by an asterisk (*) If a vehicle
had first launch after publication of my data, it may still be
marked with an asterisk.
Vehicle | Payload kg (lbs) | Reliability | Price | Launch Site
(nation) | LEO Polar GTO | | | (Lat. & Long.)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ariane 35/40 87.5% Kourou
(ESA) (5.2 N, 52.8 W)
AR40 4,900 3,900 1,900 1/1 $65m
(10,800) (8,580) (4,190)
AR42P 6,100 4,800 2,600 1/1 $67m
(13,400) (10,600) (5,730)
AR44P 6,900 5,500 3,000 0/0 ? $70m
(15,200) (12,100) (6,610)
AR42L 7,400 5,900 3,200 0/0 ? $90m
(16,300) (13,000) (7,050)
AR44LP 8,300 6,600 3,700 6/6 $95m
(18,300) (14,500) (8,160)
AR44L 9,600 7,700 4,200 3/4 $115m
(21,100) (16,900) (9,260)
* AR5 18,000 ??? 6,800 0/0 $105m
(39,600) (15,000)
[300nm]
Atlas 213/245 86.9% Cape Canaveral
(USA) (28.5 N, 81.0W)
Atlas E -- 820 -- 15/17 $45m Vandeberg AFB
(1,800) (34.7 N, 120.6W)
Atlas I 5,580 4,670 2,250 1/1 $70m
(12,300) (10,300) (4,950)
Atlas II 6,395 5,400 2,680 0/0 $75m
(14,100) (11,900) (5,900)
Atlas IIA 6,760 5,715 2,810 0/0 $85m
(14,900) (12,600) (6,200)
* Atlas IIAS 8,390 6,805 3,490 0/0 $115m
(18,500) (15,000) (7,700)
Delta 189/201 94.0% Cape Canaveral
(USA) Vandenberg AFB
Delta 6925 3,900 2,950 1,450 14/14 $45m
(8,780) (6,490) (3,190)
Delta 7925 5,045 3,830 1,820 1/1 $50m
(11,100) (8,420) (2,000)
Energia 2/2 100% Baikonur
(Russia) (45.6 N 63.4 E)
Energia 88,000 80,000 ??? 2/2 $110m
(194,000) (176,000)
H series 22/22 100% Tangeshima
(Japan) (30.2 N 130.6 E)
* H-2 10,500 6,600 4,000 0/0 $110m
(23,000) (14,500) (8,800)
Kosmos 371/377 98.4% Plestek
(Russia) (62.8 N 40.1 E)
Kosmos 1100 - 1350 (2300 - 3000) $??? Kapustin Yar
[400 km orbit ??? inclination] (48.4 N 45.8 E)
Long March 23/25 92.0% Jiquan SLC
(China) (41 N 100 E)
* CZ-1D 720 ??? 200 0/0 $10m Xichang SLC
(1,590) (440) (28 N 102 E)
Taiyuan SLC
CZ-2C 3,200 1,750 1,000 12/12 $20m (41 N 100 E)
(7,040) (3,860) (2,200)
CZ-2E 9,200 ??? 3,370 1/1 $40m
(20,300) (7,430)
* CZ-2E/HO 13,600 ??? 4,500 0/0 $???
(29,900) (9,900)
CZ-3 ??? ??? 1,400 6/7 $33m
(3,100)
* CZ-3A ??? ??? 2,500 0/0 $???m
(5,500)
CZ-4 4,000 ??? 1,100 2/2 $???m
(8,800) (2,430)
Pegasus/Taurus 2/2 100% Peg: B-52/L1011
(USA) Taur: Canaveral
Pegasus 455 365 125 2/2 $10m or Vandenberg
(1,000) (800) (275)
* Taurus 1,450 1,180 375 0/0 $15m
(3,200) (2,600) (830)
Proton 164/187 87.7% Baikonour
(Russia)
Proton 20,000 ??? 5,500 164/187 $35-70m
(44,100) (12,200)
SCOUT 99/113 87.6% Vandenberg AFB
(USA) Wallops FF
SCOUT G-1 270 210 54 13/13 $12m (37.9 N 75.4 W)
(600) (460) (120) San Marco
(2.9 S 40.3 E)
* Enhanced SCOUT 525 372 110 0/0 $15m
(1,160) (820) (240)
Shavit 2/2 100% Palmachim AFB
(Israel) ( ~31 N)
Shavit ??? 160 ??? 2/2 $22m
(350)
Space Shuttle 37/38 97.4% Kennedy Space
(USA) Center
Shuttle/SRB 23,500 ??? 5,900 37/38 $248m (28.5 N 81.0 W)
(51,800) (13,000) [FY88]
* Shuttle/ASRM 27,100 ??? ??? 0/0
(59,800)
SLV 2/6 33.3% SHAR Center
(India) (400km) (900km polar) (13.9 N 80.4 E)
ASLV 150 ??? ??? 0/2 $???m
(330)
* PSLV 3,000 1,000 450 0/0 $???m
(6,600) (2,200) (990)
* GSLV 8,000 ??? 2,500 0/0 $???m
(17,600) (5,500)
Titan 160/172 93.0% Cape Canaveral
(USA) Vandenberg
Titan II ??? 1,905 ??? 2/2 $43m
(4,200)
Titan III 14,515 ??? 5,000 2/3 $140m
(32,000) (11,000)
Titan IV/SRM 17,700 14,100 6,350 3/3 $154m-$227m
(39,000) (31,100) (14,000)
Titan IV/SRMU 21,640 18,600 8,620 0/0 $???m
(47,700) (41,000) (19,000)
Vostok 1358/1401 96.9% Baikonur
(Russia) [650km] Plesetsk
Vostok 4,730 1,840 ??? ?/149 $14m
(10,400) (4,060)
Soyuz 7,000 ??? ??? ?/944 $15m
(15,400)
Molniya 1500kg (3300 lbs) in ?/258 $???M
Highly eliptical orbit
Zenit 12/13 92.3% Baikonur
(Russia)
Zenit 13,740 11,380 4,300 12/13 $65m
(30,300) (25,090) (9,480)
------------------------------
End of Space Digest Volume 16 : Issue 009
------------------------------
